Why Molecules Have Shapes

Sources and simplifications

Every reference cited on this site, and every place a figure idealizes the real system.

References

  1. R. D. Johnson III (editor) (2022). NIST Computational Chemistry Comparison and Benchmark Database (CCCBDB), NIST Standard Reference Database 101, Release 22: experimental geometries and experimental dipole moments. National Institute of Standards and Technology. database (Molecular geometry)
  2. P. Flowers, K. Theopold, R. Langley and W. R. Robinson (2019). Chemistry 2e, §7.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity. OpenStax, Rice University. textbook (Molecular geometry)
  3. R. J. Gillespie and R. S. Nyholm (1957). Inorganic stereochemistry. Quarterly Reviews, Chemical Society 11, 339–380. doi:10.1039/QR9571100339. primary (Molecular geometry)
  4. J. J. Thomson (1904). On the structure of the atom: an investigation of the stability and periods of oscillation of a number of corpuscles arranged at equal intervals around the circumference of a circle; with application of the results to the theory of atomic structure. Philosophical Magazine, series 6, 7, 237–265. doi:10.1080/14786440409463107. primary (Molecular geometry)
  5. A. D. Clauss, S. F. Nelsen, M. Ayoub, J. W. Moore, C. R. Landis and F. Weinhold (2014). Rabbit-ears hybrids, VSEPR sterics, and other orbital anachronisms. Chemistry Education Research and Practice 15, 417–434. doi:10.1039/c4rp00057a. review (Molecular geometry)
  6. G. N. Lewis (1916). The atom and the molecule. Journal of the American Chemical Society 38, 762–785. doi:10.1021/ja02261a002. primary (Molecular geometry)
  7. N. V. Sidgwick and H. M. Powell (1940). Bakerian Lecture: Stereochemical types and valency groups. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 176, 153–180. doi:10.1098/rspa.1940.0084. primary (Molecular geometry)
  8. R. J. Gillespie (2008). Fifty years of the VSEPR model. Coordination Chemistry Reviews 252, 1315–1327. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2007.07.007. review (Molecular geometry)
  9. P. C. Hiberty, D. Danovich and S. Shaik (2015). Comment on “Rabbit-ears hybrids, VSEPR sterics, and other orbital anachronisms”. A reply to a criticism. Chemistry Education Research and Practice 16, 689–693. doi:10.1039/c4rp00245h. review (Molecular geometry)
  10. P. Flowers, K. Theopold, R. Langley and W. R. Robinson (2019). Chemistry 2e, §7.3 Lewis Symbols and Structures. OpenStax, Rice University. textbook (Lewis structures)
  11. P. Flowers, K. Theopold, R. Langley and W. R. Robinson (2019). Chemistry 2e, §7.4 Formal Charges and Resonance. OpenStax, Rice University. textbook (Lewis structures)
  12. L. Pauling (1932). The nature of the chemical bond. IV. The energy of single bonds and the relative electronegativity of atoms. Journal of the American Chemical Society 54, 3570–3582. doi:10.1021/ja01348a011. primary (Polarity)
  13. A. L. Allred (1961). Electronegativity values from thermochemical data. Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry 17, 215–221. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(61)80142-5. primary (Polarity)
  14. National Center for Biotechnology Information (2025). Periodic Table of Elements: electronegativity (Pauling scale) and CPK colours. PubChem, U.S. National Library of Medicine. database (Polarity)
  15. P. Flowers, K. Theopold, R. Langley and W. R. Robinson (2019). Chemistry 2e, §7.2 Covalent Bonding. OpenStax, Rice University. textbook (Polarity)
  16. S. J. Ling, J. Sanny and W. Moebs (2016). University Physics Volume 2, §5.7 Electric Dipoles. OpenStax, Rice University. textbook (Polarity)
  17. P. Flowers, K. Theopold, R. Langley and W. R. Robinson (2019). Chemistry 2e, §10.1 Intermolecular Forces. OpenStax, Rice University. textbook (Polarity)
  18. P. J. Linstrom and W. G. Mallard (editors) (2025). NIST Chemistry WebBook, NIST Standard Reference Database 69: phase-change data (normal boiling points). National Institute of Standards and Technology. database (Polarity)

Simplifications