How You See

Sources and simplifications

Every reference cited on this site, and every place a figure idealizes the real system.

References

  1. J. G. Betts, K. A. Young, J. A. Wise and others (2022). Anatomy and Physiology 2e, §14.1 Sensory Perception (Vision). OpenStax, Rice University. textbook (Parts of the eye)
  2. H. Kolb (2011). Simple Anatomy of the Retina (Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System). University of Utah, John Moran Eye Center. textbook (Parts of the eye)
  3. P. P. Urone and R. Hinrichs (2022). College Physics 2e, §26.1 Physics of the Eye. OpenStax, Rice University. textbook (Parts of the eye)
  4. J. E. Gómez-Correa, B. Vohnsen, B. K. Pierścionek and others (2024). Roadmap on advances in visual and physiological optics (section on optical models of the eye). arXiv 2411.14606. paper (Parts of the eye)
  5. A. J. Munsamy, A. Ngema, S. Bisetty, S. Lushaba, N. Mayaba, B. Mthiyane, N. Nyathi and A. Thabethe (2023). Evidence of the amplitude of accommodation of school-going children in the 21st century (reviews Hofstetter's 1950 age–amplitude formulas). British and Irish Orthoptic Journal 19(1), 52–63. doi:10.22599/bioj.303. paper (Parts of the eye)
  6. H. A. Anderson and K. K. Stuebing (2014). Subjective versus objective accommodative amplitude: preschool to presbyopia. Optometry and Vision Science 91(11), 1290–1301. doi:10.1097/OPX.0000000000000402. paper (Parts of the eye)
  7. P. P. Urone and R. Hinrichs (2022). College Physics 2e, §26.2 Vision Correction. OpenStax, Rice University. textbook (Parts of the eye)
  8. G. M. Stratton (1897). Vision without inversion of the retinal image. Psychological Review 4(4), 341–360, and 4(5), 463–481. doi:10.1037/h0075482. paper (Parts of the eye)
  9. K. Rohrschneider (2004). Determination of the location of the fovea on the fundus. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 45(9), 3257–3258. doi:10.1167/iovs.03-1157. paper (Parts of the eye)
  10. Wikipedia contributors (2026). Blind spot (vision): history (Edme Mariotte, 1660s). Wikipedia. encyclopedia (Parts of the eye)
  11. R. Gregory and P. Cavanagh (2011). The blind spot. Scholarpedia 6(10). encyclopedia (Parts of the eye)
  12. C. A. Curcio, K. R. Sloan, R. E. Kalina and A. E. Hendrickson (1990). Human photoreceptor topography. Journal of Comparative Neurology 292(4), 497–523. doi:10.1002/cne.902920402. paper (Rods and cones)
  13. A. Stockman and L. T. Sharpe (2000). The spectral sensitivities of the middle- and long-wavelength-sensitive cones derived from measurements in observers of known genotype. Vision Research 40(13), 1711–1737. doi:10.1016/S0042-6989(00)00021-3. paper (Rods and cones)
  14. A. Stockman (curator), Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London (2026). Colour & Vision Research Laboratory database: 2° cone fundamentals (linss2_10e_5), CIE 1951 scotopic V′(λ) (scvle), CIE 1924 photopic V(λ) (vl1924e), CIE 2006 2° XYZ functions (lin2012xyz2e_5_7sf). CVRL, University College London (data retrieved 2026-11-10). database (Rods and cones)
  15. S. Hecht, C. Haig and A. M. Chase (1937). The influence of light adaptation on subsequent dark adaptation of the eye. Journal of General Physiology 20(6), 831–850. doi:10.1085/jgp.20.6.831. paper (Rods and cones)
  16. Wikipedia contributors (2026). Purkinje effect: history (Purkyně's 1825 account). Wikipedia. encyclopedia (Rods and cones)
  17. J. Brožek, V. Kuthan and K. Arens (1991). Contributions to the history of psychology (no. 83): J. E. Purkinje and Mathias Klotz: who first described 'the phenomenon'?. Perceptual and Motor Skills 73(2), 511–514. doi:10.2466/pms.1991.73.2.511. paper (Rods and cones)
  18. National Eye Institute (2023). Types of color vision deficiency. National Institutes of Health. institutional (Rods and cones)
  19. J. Birch (2012). Worldwide prevalence of red-green color deficiency. Journal of the Optical Society of America A 29(3), 313–320. doi:10.1364/JOSAA.29.000313. paper (Rods and cones)
  20. G. M. Machado, M. M. Oliveira and L. A. F. Fernandes (2009). A physiologically-based model for simulation of color vision deficiency. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 15(6), 1291–1298. doi:10.1109/TVCG.2009.113. paper (Rods and cones)
  21. T. Atkins Jr., C. Lilley and L. Verou (editors) (2025). CSS Color Module Level 4: §18 Sample code for color conversions (sRGB transfer function; XYZ D65 to linear sRGB matrix). World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). standard (Rods and cones)
  22. R. Spielman, W. Jenkins and M. Lovett (2020). Psychology 2e, §5.3 Vision (color and depth perception). OpenStax, Rice University. textbook (Depth perception)
  23. M. Kalloniatis and C. Luu (2007). Perception of Depth (Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System). University of Utah, John Moran Eye Center. textbook (Depth perception)
  24. M. S. Landy, L. T. Maloney, E. B. Johnston and M. Young (1995). Measurement and modeling of depth cue combination: in defense of weak fusion. Vision Research 35(3), 389–412. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(94)00176-m. paper (Depth perception)
  25. N. A. Dodgson (2004). Variation and extrema of human interpupillary distance. Proceedings of SPIE 5291, Stereoscopic Displays and Virtual Reality Systems XI, 36–46. doi:10.1117/12.529999. paper (Depth perception)
  26. B. E. Coutant and G. Westheimer (1993). Population distribution of stereoscopic ability. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 13(1), 3–7. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1313.1993.tb00419.x. paper (Depth perception)
  27. B. Julesz (1960). Binocular depth perception of computer-generated patterns. Bell System Technical Journal 39(5), 1125–1162. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1960.tb03954.x. paper (Depth perception)
  28. C. Q. Howe and D. Purves (2005). The Müller-Lyer illusion explained by the statistics of image–source relationships. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102(4), 1234–1239. doi:10.1073/pnas.0409314102. paper (Optical illusions)
  29. R. L. Gregory (1963). Distortion of visual space as inappropriate constancy scaling. Nature 199, 678–680. doi:10.1038/199678a0. paper (Optical illusions)
  30. Wikipedia contributors (2026). Checker shadow illusion: history (Edward H. Adelson, 1995). Wikipedia. encyclopedia (Optical illusions)
  31. P. H. Schiller and C. E. Carvey (2005). The Hermann grid illusion revisited. Perception 34(11), 1375–1397. doi:10.1068/p5447. paper (Optical illusions)
  32. J. Geier, L. Bernáth, M. Hudák and L. Séra (2008). Straightness as the main factor of the Hermann grid illusion. Perception 37(5), 651–665. doi:10.1068/p5622. paper (Optical illusions)
  33. R. Addams (1834). An account of a peculiar optical phænomenon seen after having looked at a moving body. London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 5, 373–374. doi:10.1080/14786443408648481. paper (Optical illusions)
  34. S. Anstis, F. A. J. Verstraten and G. Mather (1998). The motion aftereffect. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2(3), 111–117. doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(98)01142-5. paper (Optical illusions)
  35. R. J. Snowden (1998). Shifts in perceived position following adaptation to visual motion. Current Biology 8(24), 1343–1345. doi:10.1016/s0960-9822(07)00567-2. paper (Optical illusions)

Simplifications